英语写作课笔记（学术写作）

Tom Kellie 是我在国科大研一上英语写作课的老师，他曾先后在北航、清华、北大任教将近十年，随后于2008年来到中科院研究生院（现为中国科学院大学），任教至今。在写作课课堂上对他的印象是严肃但幽默，非常有个性的一位教授。他的课很生动，对学生要求也不低。我很庆幸上过他的课，现在想把笔记整理出来分享供更多人参考学习。

第二部分：Academic Writing

1. SHORT REPORTS are Semi-Formal

Written for supervisors to facilitate decision-making.
Candor & transparency are essential at all times.

• Heading - Includes: dates, receivers, name, senders name, report subject in a few words.
• Introduction - An overview with the objectives, dates and personnel involved -> for future readers.
• Discussion - Summarizes activities any problems noting the solutions provided - Any technical background and major implications are succinctly explained.
• Conclusion - Decisions made are summarized suggestions for future action are made in highly polite language - Perhaps, Maybe, It might be.

Types:

• TRIP REPORTS

Conferences, meetings and field work expenses are documented.

• PROGRESS REPORTS

Is the project on schedule? Are there any problems? Is any additional equipment or staff needed? If so, why?

• LABORATORY REPORTS

Document findings and research results, including any tests performed.

• FEASIBILITY REPORTS

Significance of findings is carefully explained, especially unexpected issues.

• INCIDENT REPORTS

Accidents, Fires, Explosions, Theft, Injuries. (A) How did it happen? (B) How to prevent future events?

2. GRANT PROPOSALS FUND ACADEMIC RESEARCH

• Adhere to the inflexible format and content requirements stated on the Web site. Both length and format must strictly comply with the guidelines.
• Avoid rhetoric and hyperbole -> illustrate with real case examples.
• Be Concise, Clear and Complete. Don't propose to accomplish too much, but rather be realistic about what might be done.
• Be passionate, yet not overly speculative. "Me too" science isn't funded when budgets are limited.
• Apply wherever there is an unmistakably clear programmatic fit.
• Obtain feedback from at least five professional colleagues prior to final grant proposal submission.
• Join grant review panels early in your professional research career to better understand the grant process.

Formal Grant Proposals

• Carefully follow instructions, never exceeding any stated limits.

Informal Grant Proposals

• INTRODUCTION
  • Purpose
  • Background
  • Scope
• DISCUSSION
  • Approach
  • Desired Results
  • Description of proposed work
• RESOURCES
  • Personnel
  • Facilities and equipment
• COSTS
  • Fiscal
  • Time
• CONCLUSION
  • summary of benefits and results
  • Contact information

3. ACADEMIC PAPER BASICS

• Standard formal written English
• Academic style and tone
• Scientific/technological style -> Passive Voice ("It seems")
• Doubled-spaced
• Abstract of 6 to 8 lines
• International units -> METRIC (No $, tons, miles, inches)
• Chinese Hanyu Pinyin used for all personal names and place names
• Neutral, objective tone and style -> NO subjective feelings (keep people out)
• All assertions are carefully supported with relevant facts and examples
• Unnecessary repetition of words and numbers AVOIDED
• Above all, consideration for others, i.e. readers

Academic English in advanced technology, ecology, geology and geophysics, life sciences, climatology, chemistry, physics, and in engineering is almost exclusive concerned with the technical aspects of the research itself, whether in the field, in a laboratory or in a computer simulation/model.

• Its unconcerned with those who conducted or supported the research.
• The presence and actions of the research team are assumed thus there is no direct mention of them unless absolutely necessary.
• When a specific researcher is cited., their nationality and any achievements are NOT mentioned.

For example, instead of writing "British limnologist Prof. G. Evelyn Hutchinson of Yale University", "Prof. G. Evelyn Hutchinson" would be sufficient.

Why Publish Papers in Academic Journals?

To announce (sth. new, but new doesn't mean better) to the international educated community insights (seeing deeply), discoveries, breakthroughs, and developments (engineering) which result in significant progress in understanding.

• NOT as a ticket in order to graduate
• NOT written from any particular cultural perspective
• NOT to give instructions ,suggestions or orders (tell what your team did)
• NOT to teach
• NOT for average readers (in scholar level)
• NOT as a translation from another language
• NOT for specialists in any one academic field
• NOT to increase national glory or to gain face (not concerned with social impact)
• NOT to gain promotion
• NOT trivial subjects
• NOT incremental (big steps)
• NOT reviews (reserved for senior researchers)

Rather, an ANNOUNCEMENT which freely shares insight and understanding.

The General Format for a Scientific/Academic Research Paper

• Title
• Authors
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Materials and Methods
• Results
• Discussion (100% fresh and original)
• Acknowledgments
• References
• Tables
• Figures

Steps for Preparing, Writing and Publishing a Research Paper

1. select a journal for manuscript submission, carefully following "Instruction to Authors".
2. Decide which experimental data to present.
3. Write the Materials and Methods section.
4. Summarize results, creating tables and figures.
5. Write the Introduction and Discussion.
6. Write the Reference List, i.e. the "literature" linked to text citations, as appropriate.
7. Select a tentative title, brief but informative.
8. Write the Abstract, 8 lines or less.
9. Immediately revise the 1st Draft.
10. Do not work on the revised draft for several days.
11. Revise the manuscript a 2nd time.
12. Seek comments from co-authors, revise again (#3).
13. Submit the manuscript.

Reference Citations

• PLAGIARISM = Using materials, concepts or text from others without attribution
• All material from publications by other research groups must be cited in the text, and also listed in References

Each academic journal is an independent organization with its own style guidelines.
Please consult each journals "Instructions to Authors".

4. ACADEMIC PAPER

ABSTRACTS

• Abstracts are a brief section telling readers what is covered in a research article without explaining exactly what has been written about it.
  • What was the primary research objective?
  • What was the general research methodology?
  • What INSIGHTS made and & what future implications?
• Abstract is not a part of the paper.
• An abstract is informative, concise, lacking discussion-style explanations. As much information is given in limited space, adjectives and acronyms are used.
• Make very clear the major contribution of the paper.
• AVOID:
  • Oversimplification
  • Presenting general professional facts & background
  • Monotonous, repetitions words & phrases
• Abstracts are typically 6 to 8 lines, less than 250 words.
• Abstracts avoid 1st or 2nd person (I, our, we, you, your) instead using 3rd person (it, they) or "the authors".
• Abstracts use Past Tense ("it indicated") and Present Perfect Tense ("it has been indicated") to describe completed events.
• ABSTRACTS -> Optimized for searchable Databases.
  • Very brief background information
  • Principal purpose of the study and its scope
  • Very brief mention of methods used in the study
  • Most significant results of the study
  • Conclusion, possibly a recommendation
• Abstracts are very unlike a summary, due to being more brief lacking detail.
• No unfamiliar jargon, unless essential and fully explained.
• Search "bots" (= Web crawlers) extract less than 8 lines of abstracts in order to assemble collections of abstracts with similar content.

TITLE - an Abstract of an Abstract (no commercial names)

1. Facilitates electronic retrieval by being concise and information-rich.
2. Two-part titles use colons (:) or hyphens (-) to separate the keyword-rich section from the explanatory section. [EXAMPLE: Camouflage Strategies of Panthera pardus - how spots conceal against a complex background]
3. "Concise and informative" titles utilize noun phrases describing processes. [EXAMPLE: Reduction of Foliage Etiolation: Optimizing Chlorophyll Cells]

AUTHORS - Full name and initials, if needed, and Institutional Affiliation

1. At least one given name is complete, with abbreviations for other given names. [J.Robert Oppenheimer]. [EXAMPLE: Micheal J.Corey, Professor, University of Washington School of Chemistry, Seattle] [EXAMPLE: QIU Shenhua, Senior Researcher, Xiamen University]
2. Rank + Institution follow the name.
3. Superscripts (= raised small numbers) are used to add specialized information. [EXAMPLE: XIAO Xiao²    2 Corresponding Author     xiaoxiao@hotmail.com]
4. Author name order has no special significance outside of China -> The supervising Principal Investigator (PI) is typically listed last.

INTRODUCTION -> Peer Reviewers will ask:

1. Is this work truly original?
2. Is this work genuinely significant?
3. Is it publication quality?

• From General Theory towards Specific Previous.
• This is where previous work, as found in the literature review is mentioned, including author and date.
• The supporting theory is clearly laid out for educated general readers, followed by a discussion of previous work, explain strengths and limitations.
• Avoid "new" -> use "improved" or "novel". Avoid "recent" -> provide the date range.
• Clearly limit the scope of the present study, making clear the study limits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS or METHODS

• The action is more significant than the actor, thus passive voice is used NOT "We cultivated" the bacterial strain" but "the bacterial strain was cultivated".
• If the procedures/tests/protocols/software was previously developed, used and described elsewhere, then a more brief paragraph is acceptable.
• If, however, it was purpose-built by the research team, then a detailed step-by-step description is needed ->MUST BE in past tense, NOT as "instructions".
• When a series of similar experiments or field observations or computer simulations have been done, it isn't necessary to carefully describe the materials and methods for each one, as a sample/example will be sufficient for readers.
• Novel techniques, equipment, tests or software applications are emphasized, while well-known others are briefly mentioned, with limited details provided.
• Readers are educated adults, thus common sense facts are omitted, although true. [EXAMPLE: OMIT "This microbe is toxic, with a high risk to health, so it must be carefully handled"]

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

• By far the most difficult section to write. It's also the primary reason for rejection by editors due to faulty discussion of data.
• The true value of any research project comes from the worth of the final results and the authors' interpretation of the results.
• The results presented are tested variables which directly affect the conclusion.
• "The fool collects facts, the wise researcher selects them" - Geologist Prof. Jolin Powell
• AVOID: Redundancy (needless repetition)and Verbiage (Excessive wordiness).
• In selected research, the Results section may consist of a single sentence: "The results are shown in Table 1/Figure 1".
• Figures and tables are often the primary presentation of results, accompanied by a brief explanation of the data in the illustrations.
• Readers may be directed to the Discussion section for a more complete explanation of the significance of the results.

General Guidelines of Discussion

The key to an outstanding Discussion is to discuss but not recapitulate the results, as clearly as possible.

WHY? WHY? WHY? -> Discussions are all about explaining mechanisms and relationships.

• A clear reference to the hypothesis being tested, the main purpose or the primary activity of the study.
• A restatement of the primary findings which explains:
  • whether or not they support the original hypothesis
  • explains how they directly meet research objectives
  • notes whether or not they agree with prior results in other studies
• Explanations for all primary findings, and speculations, each fully supported by references to relevant literature.

NOTE: General background literature mentioned in the Introduction is typically separate from the literature cited in the discussion of the findings

• Any restrictions on the applicability of the findings to future studies, based on inherent limitations.
• Implications of the study results for the overall field of study.

Points raised throughout the Discussion need to clearly connect to issues raised in the Introduction

Levels of Certainty within the Discussion

• The results (A)indicate (B) demonstrate... [Very Certain]
• (A)It appears that (B)It seems likely that... [Moderately Certain]
• (A)This suggests that (B)It may be that... [Mildly Certain]

CONCLUSIONS - Convictions Based on  Evidence

• Conclusions follow logically from the data presented and agree with points raised in the Introduction.
• AVOID verbatim (=word for word) repetition - instead summarize with appropriate emphasis what's been previously presented.
• EXAMPLES (which need to be varied): "The results of the experiments indicate…" / "This paper has demonstrated that…" / "These findings have persuaded the authors that…” / "In conclusion, the results have shown…" / "It is readily apparent that…" / "We have described…" / "We have found…".

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - Expressing Gratitude and Professional Courtesy

• Is the final section of the manuscript, immediately preceding the References section and is as long as needed.
• Acknowledgments express the gratitude of the authors for:

1. support from colleagues or institutions
2. specimens, useful material, equipment, software
3. suggestions, critical reviews, editorial assistance (No "polish")
4. financial support, including grants received from government agencies

• Typically personal assistance - received from individuals - is separated from financial assistance
• Because acknowledgments are typically the only "compensation" for any professional assistance received, it's essential for them to be warm, sincere and polite.

EXAMPLES: "The authors wish to express their sincere appreciation to …" / "This research was supported in part by a grant received from…" / "The authors considerably benefitted from the insight and experience of …" / "Many thanks to Prof. Tang Tianwu of Xiamen University for editorial assistance"

Visual Data: Tables, Figures, Photographs (labeled as figures)

Illustrates the data by supplementing the text, supporting key findings.

• Tables:

1. Record data
2. Explain calculations
3. Facilitate comparison
4. Emphasize numbers, high precision

• Figures:

1. Show overall trends
2. Aid in holistic, abstract comprehension of findings
3. Facilitate comparison of a few selected elements
4. Stress pattern & shape, rather than quantitative details

• Photographs:

1. May not be digitally altered (= "photoshopped")
2. Must be in high resolution format
3. Follow strict journal guidelines to ensure authenticity

Formal Academic Vocabulary

• Uses Era (geological) names and Binomial Nomenclature.
• An especially useful term is "consequently" = as a result of a logical process.
• These terms are AVOIDED at all times, as they're informal, "baby talk": get/put/make/try/can(be)/good/important/people/things/some/have to/should be/"he" (gender neutral pronouns) -> they/firstly-secondly-finally/"As we all know", "plays a role", "moreover", "What's more"/knowledge/human being/researches/scientists/"with the rapid development of".

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LEEMANCHIU

香港科技大学在读博士研究生，曾是中国科学院大学的硕士研究生
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